Aggravated Assault
The following research paper was written for Dr William McCarthy, during the study of Sociology of Crime and Delinquency in October of 2005 at Corning Community College. Dr McCarthy is a world-renowned professor of criminology, researcher and respected author from the University of California at Davis.
The format and structure of this paper illustrates a template for college-level exploratory research and opinion. I believe that this format allows for the building of strong arguments as well as provides a valuable resource for further investigation. For instance, if an individual (whether currently in high school or just beginning college) can use it for almost any paper he or she writes. thus allowing for further additions and investigation at a later date. This even allows for the student to begin building the background for a thesis paper that could be used for graduate school!
For example, say "John Doe" is a high school senior and intends to at some point receive a Doctorates in "Criminology", he can begin this process during his senior year at high school by finding a topic that interests him such as "Aggravated Assault: Crime and Causation". John can build upon that research while in community college or undergraduate school, and at every level he can develop the paper further. By the time he reaches graduate school and needs to begin a dissertation (Graduate Student Requirements) He already has a wealth of information and the foundation of a thesis.
However, please note that most college-level courses don't allow simultaneous submission, ie submitting papers that are not substantially different in two courses.
Please feel free to discuss and comment on this format or material.
Contents
Aggravated Assault: Crime and Causation
I.) Introduction
1.1) General Discussion of Assault
Assault is frequently used to describe the illegal force to any willful attempt or threat to bring about injury upon an individual with a perceivable ability to do so. This includes the intentional display of force that would provide a victim with reason to fear or expect immediate bodily harm. An assault may be committed without any actual contact. Degrees of the offense are usually recognized as first, second, and third degree assault. Although Assault can be technically classified as a battery, it differs in that “a battery requires a physical contact of some sort whereas an assault can be committed without physical contact” Assault can be broken down into two categories: Aggravated Assault and Simple Assault; however, we will be focusing on aggravated assault within this research as it coincides to the Federal Bureau of Investigations definition of an Index Crime. According to the Uniform Crime Report, an “Aggravated Assault is an unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury.” This type of assault is usually accompanied by the use of a weapon or by means likely to produce death or great bodily harm. Attempts involving the display of a deadly weapon are included because severe personal injury would likely occur if the assault were completed.
1.2) Popular Beliefs of Assault
Societies prevailing attitude regarding assault can be described as somewhat dismissive and in some instances, without consequence. It is not uncommon in everyday life to become a witness of an assault or threat of violence against yourself or another human being. For example, in a daily commute to work or school one may encounter an agitated driver on the brink of developing road rage; While shopping during the holiday season it is not unusual to observe a barrage of threats and menacing gestures between store patrons and employees; At sporting events such as a basketball melee between players and spectators or coaches, or parents within the stands at high school sporting function; Social activities such as bars or parties where inebriated individuals often threaten or engage one another. Elementary and Junior High Schools also find themselves with a disproportionate number of schoolyard violent acts. These assaults can also be viewed in the ’safety’ of ones own home. Television, movies, and music videos commonly contain such violent threats and batteries. For example, within an hour of a Jerry Springer talk show there is an overabundance of fisticuffs without anyone being sent off to face prosecution for their actions. Furthermore, Video games and music lyrics contain such offensive gestures that they are currently graded on violent content, but are still purchased for our children and by our children without a second thought of their overall significance.
Those who become victims of assault are chastised even after an assault if they report such crimes by being labeled as a snitch or coward. There is an unwritten ‘code of the street’ that one must abide by to thwart any other threat of future violence.
This excess of implied and physical violence only aids to desensitize the impact of assault in today’s society. Thus, undermining the ability of law enforcement to effectively control such behavior while allowing it to grow unreported.
1.3) Crime Significance
It is my personal belief that both larceny and assault are ’gate-way’ crimes. This can be construed as they are usually the first major crimes that a youth will typically witness or commit. With each repeated offense unobstructed, it further deepens its ability to reoccur with much greater consequences thus, eradicating the overall feeling of safety to function within society. At undetectable levels, people may even change or curb their activities in hopes not to be a victim of assault. Whether it means that more individuals will abstain from professional venues, local establishments or even a Sunday drive, these freedoms are then surrendered without contention.
1.4) Author’s Interest in Assault
On December 27th 1999, I committed such an assault upon another person in commission of a Robbery. With a steel bar, I assaulted an attendant of a gas station on the New York State Thruway. The victim received a head injury as a result of the attack. By demonstrating no respect for the life, safety and property of others, I received a significant six (6) year sentence in a medium security prison. I was convicted of two (2) counts of assault in the second degree, one (1) count of attempted robbery in the first degree, one (1) count of attempted grand larceny in the fourth degree, as well as one (1) count of conspiracy in the fourth degree. Through my actions, I caused substantial anguish and pain to the victim as well as his family and friends that may never elapse. The victim may never feel out of harm’s way again, especially as it was unprovoked. Those feelings shall remain with him for the rest of his life. As for myself, I feel that the punishment that I received may never eclipse the feelings of fear that the victim may experience. The losses that I have endured are not comparable to that of the victims; however, they are considerable for this discussion. For one, spending any time behind walls is a terrible way to live. Mostly though, I consider the time that I received as a punishment to those who love and care for me as they suffered as well through my actions. Currently, I am serving a mandatory time of post release supervision in which I am unable to travel freely to visit and actively participate in their lives. In any crime, there is a factor of collatoral damage that is usually not initially contemplated.
1.5) Author’s Expectation to Learn Regarding Assault
Although there have been and currently are far greater intellectual minds that have researched the causes and continuances of this and other criminal enterprises. I could only hope to help define and identify assault as well as provide a theory for its continuances for this class and myself. On a personal note, I hope to discover a better understanding regarding the instances of assault and how to better protect my family and self.
II.) Descriptive Statistics of Assault and its Perpetrators
2.1) Amount of Assaults Committed and Reported Annually
The total amounts of aggravated assaults or of any type of crime within the United States cannot easily be ascertained. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Report, the total number of aggravated assault offenses in 2003 was 857,921. This figure is down 33,486 incidents from 2002’s total of 891,407. This decline earmarked the tenth year of contiuous reduction in the volume of aggravated assaults for reporting agencies across the United States. The clearances rate for aggravated assault was 55.9% in 2003 with 449,933 arrests stemming from these incidents. Although these figures can make one believe that law enforcement is successfully combating the occurrences of such acts, they can also be misleading. During the same year of 2003, the National Crime Victimization Survey reported a sum of 947,780 aggravated assaults. The reason for the discrepancies could be found through reporting practices of both agencies. Each fails to truly capitalize the total amount of aggravated assaults that occur each year for a number of reasons. As this knowledge is perceived to be understood, we shall forego any further explanation. In the future, it is the author’s optimism that the National Incident-Based Reporting System will help to correct some of these irregularities. As specified by the NVCS, only 59.4% of those surveyed had indicated that they reported their crime to law enforcement officials, while 39.3% said that they did not. It is believed that less than 40% of criminal incidents are reported to the Uniform Crime Report thus in perspective we may allow for over 514,792 additional incidents of unreported aggravated assaults, bringing an estimated total of 1,372,713. However, this is only the authors estimate and should be looked upon as such.
2.2) General Description of Offenders
Aggravated assault is a crime that bends most criminological theory. By this, I mean that 86.3% of offenders are adult with 39.9% under the age of 25, 24.8% under age 21 and only 5% under the age of 15. This is in contrast to research that indicates that adolescents carry out crime more often than their older peers. The reasons for this divergence will be further elaborated on in section 4.3. Furthermore, aggravated assault departs from other index crimes in that typically minority group members make up a unbalanced portion of criminal activity. The Uniform Crime Report (2003) indicates that 64.7% of offenders committing aggravated assault are white compared to only 33% of African Americans. Statistically, offenders are more likely to use a club or blunt object (35.9%) to commit their offense. The UCR additionally found that 26.9% used personal weapons such as their fists, hands or feet, 19.1% some type of firearm and 18.2% a knife or sharp object. The highest risk-region of the United States resides in the South where 43.3% of aggravated assaults occur, followed by the West at 24.3%, the Midwest at 18.2% and the Northeast totaling 14.3%. Through the National Crime Victimization Survey of 2003, it was revealed that 48.2% of offenders were strangers to their victims, 33.2% were friends or acquaintances, 11.2% had an intimate relationship, and 4.8% were related by some other means to their victim. The time of occurrence for these assaults generally did not depart from other index crimes in that 47.6% took place between the hours of 6am and 6pm, followed by 37.7% from 6pm to 12am. Over 89% of the aggravated assaults that occurred involved only 1 victim. The total incidents that the offender was perceived to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol was 34.9% however, in 46.5% of the reported occurrences that information was never ascertained. Overall, the pattern of assault is comparable to that of homicide but differs in that the victim always survives.
2.3) General Reasons for Assault Offenses
By attempting to apply a group of general reasons to determining the causes of aggravated assault offenses, one would in turn be limiting the scope of their investigative research into this topic. Furthermore, it would be quite difficult to accurately collect and classify the many unique reasons criminologists would receive, which does not include efforts to validate them. Instead, numerous organizations have applied various risk factors such as “personality traits like impulsivity, family factors like poor parental supervision, school experiences like poor grades and peer factors like gang membership”. A variety of ‘risk factors‘ exist to date and these ’variables’ are interrelated in applying a theory to help to distinguish the major causes of crime. It is the author’s contention however, that the different theories we use to explain crime should not be all-inclusive.
III.) Review of Applied Theory
3.1) Motives in Determining Theory Choice
In view of aggravated assault statistics and personal observations, it was deduced that environmental, social, personal, physical and mental dynamics all play significant roles in applying a theory to explain aggravated assault. Each of these articles help to explain the various and unique determining factors that may dictate offender’s motivations for carrying out this crime. Many of the theories proposed are based upon a fundamental issue such as biological or mental traits as in a Positivist Theory, Class Struggle as in a Marxist Theory, Social Structure as in a Sociological Theory, and so forth. Branches of each of these theories then categorize causes even further, thus limiting their overall scope to satisfactorily explain all crime causation. General Crime Theory is intended to account for how individuals across a broad range of social, physical, mental, personal, environmental and economic distinctions are more likely than others to engage in behaviors that are condemned by the populace as well as include a significant risk of punishment. In review of numerous theory models, it was realized that a ‘General Theory’ of crime best explains all attributes of aggravated assault thus, no other theory was given preference.
3.2) General Theory of Crime Description
General Theory of Crime can be closely associated with the Classical Theory of Cesare’ Beccaria in that individuals initially choose to commit crime after weighing the benefits and costs of their actions. If the punishment of committing the crime were certain, severe and swift, it would successfully deter a large amount of its causation. General Theory of Crime (GTC) contends that some people engage in crime because they possess personality traits that reduce their concern for pubic disgrace and sanction. Furthermore, offenders may reside in an environment where the risk of public disapproval and punishment is low. GTC as well allows for the interpersonal relationships that form in adolescents and adulthood, some of which can produce strong pressures upon an individual to commit a crime. This would include such aspects as assault, street crime and gang violence. Unlike some theories, GTC includes the biological and psychological factors that may be either inherited or learned as a youth and which are directly associated to the susceptibility to commit crime. Therefore, those individuals who have a higher propensity to commit crime may differ in their activities according to the opportunities and incentives that present themselves. The ability for an individual to control their impulsive personalities was proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi. They maintain that “low self-control is directly related to anti-social behavior” and that this correlation transcends all gender, racial, social, cultural and economic class lines. With this concept, Gottfredson and Hirschi reason that all criminal behavior could be explained in terms of ones ability or inability to control their lowest impulsive desires. Thus, allowing for those who are intuitively ’crime-prone’ to either continue their disruptive behaviors or correct them by finding alternative channels in which to exert themselves productively. Ultimately, these choices are dictated by both the ability to overcome innate and learned behaviors as well as their ability to pass by criminal opportunity.
3.3) Why it is the Correct Theory to Apply to Aggravated Assault
As stated in 3.2, very few theories of crime offer a complete and effective model to fully understand all the dynamics that play into crime causation. This is especially true when they are race, class or gender specific. To competently explain aggravated assault, we must allow for countless aspects of social, cultural and ecological characteristics that help shape crime causation across undefined lines. The General Theory of Crime distinguishes the criminal offender from the criminal act, although they are two unique and separate concepts, each are interrelated. This distinct relationship is bound by the theory that through impulsive personality traits, low self-esteem and weakened social bonds an individual becomes particularly susceptible to surrounding criminal opportunities. These attributes can be demonstrated by people who have violent tendencies such as those who commit aggravated assault. Generally, these manners may include insensitive, risk-taking, shortsighted, physically apt, non-verbal people. As General Crime Theory reveals, each of these factors may be the result of genetic make-up or a learned behavior, even a combination of both. Section 4.1 will elaborate on this premise.
IV.) Discussion:
4.1) Analysis and Influence of Assault Applying Theory
Self-Esteem can be defined as one’s overall self-evaluation or self worth. This understanding is first developed as an adolescent and can be influenced by environmental factors such as home life, parenting style, neighborhood and school experiences. Significant studies have provided that low self-esteem directly relates to the onset of violent behaviors. E. Anderson alludes to this fact as a “persistent cause of violence among youth gangs.” H. Toch in his work “Violent men: an inquiry into the psychology of violence” suggested that there is “a compensatory relationship between low self-esteem and violence” he further eludes that through violent actions, those who have a low self-esteem, hope to gain self-value. Numerous other studies have touched upon this understanding between low self-esteem and techniques of self-enhancement. This appreciation is vital when applying General Crime theory to aggravated assault. Many criminals commit their first offenses when they are very young. Usually, these offenses are not considered serious and the majority of society is dismissive of their causes and nature, inferring that they are common in childhood. These events commonly occur in school settings where the initial acts of low self-esteem first begin to be publicly socialized within their peer groups. Behaviors such as bullying and name-calling as well as other abusive signs all help to distinguish the beginnings of anti-social behavior. Aggravated assault accounts for over 62% of all violent crimes that occur. With males accounting for over 82% of these offenses, it can be deduced that they have a pre-disposed disposition for aggressive acts. Research has demonstrated that “male reproductive success is directly correlated with aggressive behavior in virtually all mammalian species.” This natural aggression can be demonstrated in a variety of ways depending upon the environmental stimuli that surrounds the individual. For example, the same aggressive traits that one male may demonstrate in a deviant act, (i.e. assault, robbery, murder or forcible rape), another male may utilize for survival or playing sports. The central chemical component for the root of aggression is testosterone. Although this hormone is present in both men and women; it is produced at higher levels in men. Testosterone does not effectively explain all criminal behavior by itself as not all males commit deviant or criminal acts. It alone as well fails to explain the aggressive behavior that can be found in women. As stated before, the environmental factors alone or in combination with various biological aspects may help to ingrain criminal patterns into the ideals of children. It is then these learned patterns that shape the rest of their life decisions. As children grow from adolescents to young adults, these ideas of reasoning can be reinforced by peers, movies, television, video games, music and even prior successes in deviant behavior. The cyclic perpetuation of aggressiveness can then be amplified by criminal opportunity. Free time, drugs, suitable targets can all promote further deviant acts that are exponentially greater than those performed before.
4.2) Explanation of Crime Causation
Aggravated assault can be directly contributed to the biological and environmental factors that exist when given the criminal opportunity to commit them. Although there is no litmus test that can be provided to determine every occurrence, there are signs that may help to distinguish those individuals that may be more crime-prone. Most notably, the anti-social and impulsive attitudes that are developed as a youth. Unchecked, these prevailing manners grow into harmful urges in adulthood. These, as well as risky behaviors such as drinking, drugs, and gang activity, among others, can influence the choices one decides in performing criminal deviant acts. Those that demonstrate anti-social behaviors are far more likely to have less successful relationships with their peers and elders. They as well are less likely to be married or in stable relationships which help to promote stability. Thus, adding into the opportunities to commit such deviancy. In their hope to overcome their inward feelings of inferiority, they attempt to dominate others, those usually weaker, as a means of self-enhancement.
4.3) Effective Social Controls
To effectively control the majority of aggravated assault offenses, society must approach these problems at its initiation as well as to attempt to limit the possibility of criminal opportunities. Children who demonstrate a low self-esteem, impulsive attitudes and anti-social behaviors should be earmarked for special youth programs that create pro-social peer support. As there are a number of pilot programs that exist today, one or more of these should be incorporated in all levels of schooling. Most effectively, certain punishments for children who demonstrate deviant acts must be integrated. These could include volunteering in social and after-school programs. Currently, most school policies dictate an out of school period of suspension, which only add to the free time and disassociation that promote further criminal opportunities. These ideas of punishment should be disbanded in support of more pro-active programs. Parents must also play an integral role in providing positive role models and social examples of proper behavior. Society is currently at odds in whether to hold parents or children accountable for their actions. The author proposes that it should be a combination of both, and those positive, effective solutions, which ultimately have the premise of correcting these attitudes, should be applied. Other possible social controls to combat aggravated assault can be instituted in attempt to regulate the criminal opportunity aspect of this crime. Such measures as limiting those factors that exponentially increase the chances of assault would include; access to violent media by young adults, availability of inexpensive alcohol during happy hours and promotion of violent behaviors. It is the author’s contention that it would be much easier to contend with aggressive behaviors at their onset rather than after they are an ingrained method of behavior. All attempts should be focused upon this premise in expectation to reduce the occurrence and significance of aggravated assault.
V.) Conclusion:
5.1) Research Establishment
A re-evaluation of general crime theory and aggravated assault suggests that there are indeed biological and environmental components that cause deviant behavior. Aggravated assault is directly influenced by the social blueprint that is developed in childhood. Lack of social skills, low self-esteem, poor parenting, ineffective social integration as well as the stimulus of testosterone may help to predict these behaviors. There are environmental stimuli that promote and propagate the acceptance of these deviant acts. The decision to participate in criminal opportunity is a direct result of a combination of contributing factors.
5.2) New Material Learned by Author
Within this brief synopsis of the theory behind the causes and continuation of aggravated assault, a new dimension of contributing factors was learned and established. This includes a fresh understanding of the amalgamation between crime, biology and the environment. More importantly the direct link between anti-social behaviors in childhood and aggravated assault in adulthood. The fact that more white males in their adulthood commit these crimes was also a new revelation. It is surprising to learn how social ideas of punishment for youth undermine the effort to reduce future incidents of crime.
5.3) Issues that have yet to be Examined
As this research was far from comprehensive, there remain a number of other issues that could be further examined. Most notably, how some studies have indicated that a high self-esteem may also dictate aggressive behavior. Egotism and narcissistic attributes could possibly play a significant role in the development of criminal activity. There also remains an excess of biological information that help form a criminal attitude. Serotonin, DNA, gene bred aggression, intelligence and other hormonal influences most likely effect the chances of one having a predisposition of antisocial behaviors. More importantly, the effects of violent stimuli upon youth could be further scrutinized, unlike biological factors, these, society has the opportunity to manipulate and control. One last question that remains to be answered is the affect of the labeling deviant behavior of youths and its connection to adult criminality. It is the author’s contention that there is a significant interaction between self-worth and the verbal labels given by others.
5.4) Corrective Measures to Examine other Possible Issues
All of the aforementioned issues that remain to be comprehensively addressed could be better understood through empirical study analysis as well as self-report surveys. It would be interesting to conduct cohort research and meta-analysis reviews to ascertain whether a general theory of crime helps to identify at risk persons. Much of the research that has been conducted to base these views was of that of people already incarcerated. This negatively affects the possibility of gaining a valid introspect into low-self esteem as those who were examined had already been subject to a great deal of self-degradation. There definitely should be more suitable attempts to determine the proliferation of these attitudes at their beginnings.
VI.) References
- Anderson, E. "The Code of the Streets" Atlantic Monthly. 273 (5) May 1994. p. 81-94.
- Baumeister, R. Smart, L. Borden, J. "Relation of Threatened Egotism to Violence and Aggression: The Dark Side of Self-Esteem" Psychological Review. Vol. 103, (1996) p. 6.
- Black, H. Nolan, J. Connolly, M.J. "Black's Law Dictionary Abridged 5th Edition" St. Paul Minnesota: West Publishing Company, (1983) p.60
- Clark, W.R. Grunstein, M. "Are We Hardwired? The Role of Genes in Human Behavior" Oxford University Press, (2000) p. 159.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Re:"Aggravated Assault Offenses Reported 2003" Online Posting. October 27th 2004. Found Here October 12th 2005.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Re: "Aggravated Assault Offenses Reported 2004" p. 1.
- Harries, K. "Homicide & Assault: A Comparative Analysis of Attributes in Dallas Neighborhoods, 1981-1985" Profesional Geographer. 41 February 1989. p. 29-38.
- Schulz, S. "Problems with the Versatility Construct of Gottsfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime" European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law & Criminal Justice. 12 (2004) p. 61-83.
- Steffenmeiser, D. Streifel, C. "Age, Gender & Crime Across Three Historical Periods: 1935, 1960 & 1985" Social Forces. 69 (1991)p. 869-894.
- Toch, H. "Violent Men: An Inquiry Into the Psychology of Violence" Washington DC. American Psychological Association (1969) p. 42.
- United States Department of Justice, National Crime Victimization Survey, Re: "NCVS 2003" Online posting last revised October 17th 2005. Found Here September 22nd 2005.
